Damage to crops by wild animals
Section I General discussion
G. Mr. Wani
Ph. D, D. V. M (Germany)
ISSGAPU FN, FN DAAD
Director of Extension Education & SAMET
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology of Kashmir
Shalimar, Srinagar, 191,121
A concise and comprehensive study to assess the damage caused to crops by wild animals worldwide. The examination was attempted in response to a recommendation of ICAR Regional Committee No.1, held in October 2007, Solan, H. p. chaired by His Excellency the Director General of ICAR, Dr. Mangala Rai was opened by the Minister of Agriculture of J & K, Jenab Ab Aziz Zargar.
Author
Posted by: Director, State Agricultural Extension and Training Institute of Kashmir (Samet-K), SKUAST-K, Shalimar, POBox: 461, Y GP, Srinagar.
Publication No.: SAMETI/Pub/3/1000/January, 2008
PO Box: 461, GPO, Srinagar, E. Mail: Wanimohyuddin @ yahoo. com
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Introduction:
Wildlife human conflict have started since the beginning of the era of man since Adam and Eve. This conflict of desert was the man hiding in caves and was known as "caveman". Gradually, with his progress, it was he who invented the shaft and another weapon in the stone age and iron to scare wild animals at first. Later, forced them to safety. This feeling of uncertainty and fear of wild animals and natural spaces, reduces to the invention of fire. Sharp Weapons made of bone and iron. These weapons were the initial start of this conflict, the human animal conflict.
There are thirty thousand years, human population was 6 million. They were still hunters. With the invention of fire, sparked a large majority of wildlife sanctuaries that fear and who have migrated from their neighborhood. Many forests, mountains and difficult terrain, even beyond the reach of man three thousand years before, while the human population has increased to 60 million. The man has already begun primitive agriculture. He had made his land and wildlife out of fear for him near their habitat and found a new home. The man now thirsty skin, horns, ornaments and other forest resources. He invented many ways to frighten the wild animals together. It has become a "danger" not only for wildlife but also for their own species, environment and eco-biodiversity.
There are three hundred years, production of industrial crops and produce enough food to nearly 600 million people. This has continued and 30 feed 6000 million people. Today we have a world food security 7. 5 billion. Gains on Food security has led to the reduction of all other animals is the origin of the wildlife human conflict is the human desire for more food, more luxury, or sometimes fun to hunt or skin . This reduces the duration of the wildlife reserves and open conflict came into being.
Many of the conflicts between humans and wildlife have been reported in the Gir forest of Gujarat, UP Rajaji National Park and many other states, where forest land is now farmland. The elephants, warthogs, monkeys, squirrels, deer, birds like crows, parrots, wild dogs, jackals, gaur, sambar, langur, hens, roosters neilg peas, hippos, nigropectus, blackbirds, rodents, wild pigs, life wild primates, beetles, foxes, pigeons, wild boar and a variety of cultures from other species of the damage. Carnivores attack even the man. These attacks are searching for food or habitat loss. Many of these accidents came to be known as Jammu and Kashmir. Leopod bears and other wildlife are reduced in number. Their habitats used by man.
Human casualties due to species of carnivorous, herbivorous, but inflict economic and human losses as well. The crop damage by wildlife is the new threat to agricultural productivity worldwide. We are also concerned in Asia and India. This review is to determine:
1. The extent of damage to crops.
2. Nature of crop damage
3. Ways and means to prevent these losses.
4. Strategic planning to promote a line between the conservation of wildlife and agriculture, particularly in India.
Executive Summary and ease of strategic base []
1. Importance
The species that cause crop damage were wild birds elephants, monkeys, squirrels, deer, parrots, wild dogs, foxes, deer and many others like neilg. On average the damage caused to crops by wildlife amounts to U $ 961 per hectare. It's more than ACTH Indian farmer wins a year. Therefore, these estimates of damage are spectacular and economically important.
2. The human-elephant conflict (HEC):
i) economic loss:
Among elephants, looting of crops is common. Crops near their home ranges are more damaged. Elephants damage crops were twice as high as the lines that do not damage crops. Therefore, the proximity of several crops near their ranges are subject to damage crops. Train accidents cause more elephants, or damage to the rights of the harvest. Indonesia has seen more frequent incursions of elephants on crops. Human Elephant Conflict (HEC) is common and poses serious problems in Africa. Both groups of men and attacks the family group were observed. HEC losses in West Bengal stood at 3. 2 rupees CROS. This damage occurred in 3368sq kms. radio. The number of digital elephants is only 62. Assam observes the damage to timber, wild Asian elephants elephants raid and damage crops in flocks of 10-13 individuals or large herds of elephants 50-74. In a district of Darjeeling in an area of 200 kms. From east to west in the past two decades, 277 houses have been demolished by elephants, killing 66 people in 5 districts. Following this conflict 23 elephants have lost their lives. In 2001, the economic loss of about fifty thousand U.S. dollars is expected to be inflicted by elephants. This requires comprehensive measures taken to mitigate those damages. A review of measures around the world after some studies suggest that measures be undertaken and that are applicable to mitigate damages.
ii) mitigation of loss:
Methods developed and used to limit crop damage by elephants was to scare the animals by drumbeats, or even firegracks fires air gun. Crop protection by fencing or even by an electric fence or raising the poles and wires can be effective. Chemical repellents based on electric fences and have been found to reduce damage to crops. Fencing high tension by energizing the west prevented the harvest of wildlife damage, but this preposition can not be applicable in areas where homes still lack access to electricity. However, this method can act as a provisional boundary between wild and domestic. This would prevent the intrusion of Sly Vatic domestic households. Fields of protection, digging trenches, changing cropping patterns have an opportunity to reduce conflicts or conflicts Elephant Man elephant man. A 30% open space between the two habitats can help prevent the HEC. This means a distance to be maintained between crop fields and elephant habitats. A proper investigation of these lines is necessary. A network of geographic information system (GIS) with a resolution May 25Km2 effectively help cost data source for analysis of these situations. It is urgent to identify predictors HEC space. Based on this study, we can suggest or plan mitigation strategies, warnings about the attacks, the use of barriers and disincentives. The usefulness of the methods could be assessed for land use and livelihood strategies to reduce HEC.
3. Dear-nilgai damage.
A survey of 2,500 farms in the United Kingdom found that 69% (n = 192) of cereal crops have been damaged by deer. This damage costs £ 500 a year per farm. Damages varied with deer density. In the U.S. Deer too much damage involving the loss of crops, damage to scenery, motor vehicle accidents and property damage. Damages alongwith Nilgaut deer damage in India also. Acacia trees cover the region is generally used as a shelter for nilgai. We met with enormous damage to crops in Mathura (CIRG) and surrounding areas for visits nilgai. Nilgai pastures and cause losses on the farm. This is considered a threat mammal harvest by farmers. This behavior to harm the ozone layer in the young tree, so valuable to the growth of trees in semi-arid Indian farms.
Of damages by deer corn in the U.S. amounts 6. 6. % Per hectare. In a region where a farmer owns 125 hectares at an average of 55 hectares were used for planting maize. There is a 6. 6% loss of product that is a major economic loss. Similar Damage by deer in Ontario, Canada, Portugal, Japan, South America and elsewhere were examined. Virginia also a study in 1506 peasant farmers found 58% had experienced deer damage. Ways and means to prevent such attacks on crops have been examined. Most of the possible measures to be taken are similar to those described for Elephants (HEC).
4. In other mammals and birds damage
Monkey damage corn, sweet potato and other crops. It is suggested to reduce or change the pattern of culture or alternating with the non-agricultural activities near the site of monkey habitats. Several methods are discussed. Bat damage, damage Hygo culture in Japan, the damage to wine grapes by bats in Andhra Pradesh, India was studied. The economic loss of crops has been reviewed in these pages. Clover than grass can reduce the damage of wild mammals. The black walnut intercropping has helped save the crops of soybeans and corn damages. This can be harmful pesticides and minimize their attacks, feathers and electric fences to help others to avoid such damage. Can I use dangerous means to save the crops, we need a strategy for the preservation of ecology and biodiversity. The two cultures and the need for security and wildlife conservation. A management strategy is needed to protect humans and animals as well. A policy framework is proposed.
Blackbird damage to crops in the U.S. amounts to 5-8 million euros. A considerable amount of millions of rupees have been estimated damage in the form of crop losses and property from wild animals, birds and rodents in India. Many measures to reduce these losses are necessary and have been examined.
Review
1. Wild animals damage crops
For elephants boar, porcupine rheus macaques (Macaca mulatta), the white-bellied squirrel, Barking Deer (Muntiacus muntjak), Red-breasted Parakeet (Psittacula alexandri), and wild dogs are wild animals damaging crops.
The methods developed and used to mitigate conflict between humans and wildlife include, for fear animals, crop protection, and uses a sort of scarecrow and traps (Miah et al 2001).
Accurate estimate of crop damage by wild animals (raccoons, deer and coyotes) often requires the sampling process labor intensive. Variable area transect (VAT) sampling has been identified as a potential labor-saving alternative to square sampling (Engerman et al 2002).
2. Human wildlife conflict
The owners of the agricultural land in the form of damage to crops, livestock and other property. Some wildlife agencies maintain reduction and compensation programs. A model of deer crop damage inflicted used to facilitate decisions regarding deer densities and distribution agency, the use of reduction, and provide compensation. The model applies at the level of claims in Wisconsin, USA. The results are consistent with the theory (J Yoder, 2002).
3. Cut economic losses due to wildlife
Perceptions of people saw through participatory discussions covering 419 households in 10 villages in the buffer zone. From the traditional rights of local populations were greatly reduced consolidated through policy interventions set in since 1860. Local people and tourists have been excluded from the central zone with an area of 625 km2 since 1982. The deterioration of the rural economy due to damage to crops and livestock by wildlife, and the completion of the revenue opportunities of wild resources of medicinal plants and tourism in the central zone were the main negative impacts of conservation policy experienced by over 90% of respondents. It means an annual economic loss per household is estimated at Rs 1285, R. 1195 and Rs 156 by the damage caused by wildlife to food crops, fruit trees and beehives, respectively, RS. Reason for the prohibition of harvesting of wild medicinal plants for the marketing and Rs 1587. Reason for ban on tourism in the central zone 7904. The Authority reserves aid fallen by wild animals, but was only 5% of the market value of livestock killed, evaluated by the people. People do not appreciate the benefits of the management of existing reserves in the form of wages for carrying out afforestation work, partial compensation for livestock depredation and availability of solar energy devices, wool and rotation devices . Approximately 95% of respondents identified empowerment of local people towards the realization of revenues from the dead wood and diseased trees in community forests, income from medicinal plants in the buffer zone and opening central tourism as potential development options. Improving the rural economy, the main concern of local people, has received less attention than the implementation of the legal protection of the reserve management. We need to develop management policies and measures that serve the economic interests of local people with improved objective of preserving the environment (Maikhuri et al 2001).
4. Selected crops:
The damage was minor (34%) of the basic experimental crops as many carrots as the only crop planted (62% damage). Staggered plantings of canola, which produces flowers continuously, culture was more effective in attracting green manure crops we've tested. The producers of carrots to use electric fences or 2. 4-M wire-mesh fences, perhaps combined with staggered planting of canola to reduce the depredations of carrot (Schwab et al 2001).
The Colver, rather than the fertilized grass grows the most effective coverage of the Freedom of Association against the damage caused by migratory geese. The grass must be managed to encourage clover growth, which probably involve frequent cutting, but no fertilizer. Further research is needed on the rate of replenishment of the clover during the winter season and the potential benefits of clover pasture for wildlife (McKay et al 2001). The intercropping of black walnut and the percentage of corn and soybean rotations in May avoided damage from animals. Tree crop ratio of 1:10 May Aid (Godsey, 2000).
5. Elephantine conflict of rights:
Conflicts between elephants (Elephas maximus) and man occur in Rajaji National Park (RNP), Uttar Pradesh, one of eleven designated reserves in India, to protect the Asian elephant. Elephant-man. RNP Conflicts in 1996 to 1999 were studied, and there were all human and elephant deaths or injuries caused by the conflict. The impact of human settlements in the movements of elephants has been studied in 18 villages along 17 km of the southern border of the study site and 4 in the village of Chilla Motichur corridor. Three male and four female elephants were followed radio for 1-2 years. Primary Conflict including looting of crops, competition between humans and elephants on the vegetation and mortality of elephants due to train accidents. Adult males that crops are going home raided twice as large as adult males do not attack crops. Elephants only damaged the crop fields that occurred within their home ranges. Field testing of chemical-based repellents and electric fences should be tried to reduce crop damage. The speed must be reduced to prevent accidental elephant mortality (Williams et al 2001).
Wild Elephant damages:
A nation of rapid assessments and data from the field surveys showed. Elephants raided crops at a rate of 0. 53 elephants a day in Indonesia. The incidence of looting of crops is related to the type of vegetation along the park boundaries, size and the presence of rivers and distance to the Elephant Park Training Center (ETC), which houses some 150 elephants in captivity . Wild elephants damaged at least 450,000 m2 of corn, rice, cassava, beans and other crops annually, and about 900 coconut trees, banana trees and other perennials in the study area. Elephants killed or wounded 24. Villagers try to reduce elephant damage protection fields, digging trenches between the park and its fields, and change their cropping patterns. Elephant-human conflict decreases the probability that the support of local people in conservation efforts. The proposed approaches are elephant trenches, electric fences, external support to affected villages, and compensation to the inhabitants of the damage (Nyhus et al 2000).
This study explores land use conflict in Kajiado district, south-east Kenya. The results of household surveys with farmers and ranchers in 1977 and 1996 to examine changes in strategies for land management are compared. The conflict reflects ongoing competition over access to land and scarce water resources among animals, agriculture and wildlife are the result of damage to crops. The man animal conflict has to understand the conditions that created the current conflict (Compbell et al 2000).
Therefore suggested that the open space of 30% is used as the basis for filling service division of stratification and low categories for use with high deer density estimate. The proportions of each type could be derived from the measurement network of the squares of aerial photographs (J. Latham, 2000).
Conflicts between humans and elephants
The man elephant conflict (HEC) in Africa occurs whenever these two species coincide, and poses serious challenges to wildlife managers, local communities and elephants alike. Mitigation requires a detailed knowledge of the patterns and underlying processes. Although temporal trends of HEC are relatively predictable, spatial variation has shown few universal trends, it is difficult to predict where conflict will occur. The looting of crops has been subdivided into incidents involving only male elephants or family groups. A relatively good resolution, the systematic method based on the network is used to map the locations of the incidents of conflict, and spatial relationships with the underlying variables were analyzed using correlation analysis and logistic regression. The looting of crops are divided into different areas of conflict. Both the frequency and intensity could be predicted on the basis of acreage and male elephant groups, proximity to major settlements. On the contrary, incidents, injuries and death were less predictable, but were correlated with proximity to roads. A network based on geographic information systems (GIS) with a resolution of 25km2 profitable use of the data source, in combination with simple statistical tools, was capable of identifying spatial predictors of HEC, in compromise resolution finer spatial autocorrelation analysis . Synthesis and application. These results suggest that the spatial correlation of HEC can be identified, irrespective of the sex of the elephants in question. Moreover, the method described here is fully transferable to other sites for comparative analysis of HEC. The use of these results to map vulnerability will enable the development and deployment of appropriate strategies to mitigate conflict, such as childcare, early warning systems, barriers and deterrents. The usefulness of these methods and their strategic deployment should be evaluated together with the land use and alternative livelihood strategies that limit cultivation within the range (Sitati et al 2003).
Human Elephant Conflict (HEC) of West Bengal, was a loss of economic value 3. 2 crores. This happened a lot of damage within a radius of 3368 km ², inhibition of 62 elephants (Singh et al 2002)
6. Kerala Survey
Crop damage by wildlife in Kerala, India, has been studied from 1993 to 1996. Data were collected from the offices of the Kerala Forest Department, field study and intensive study area Marayur, Idukki District. Forty-five species of crops were destroyed by wild animals in Kerala, species that are destroyed by wild animals were rice, coconut Plam, banana, cassava, areca nuts, coffee, Plam oil, pepper, tree Jack , mulberry and Manago. The main animals involved in crop damage were elephant (Elephas maximus), Gaur (Gaur), sambar (Cervus unicolor), wild boar (Sus scrofa), Bonnet macaque (Macaca radiate), the common langur (Presbytis entellus) blacknaped hare (Lepus nigricollis) and pea fowl (Pavo cristatus). Among them, wild elephants and the Board have given the maximum damage. Of the total compensation claimed by farmers, only 8. The 2% has been sanctioned by the Forest Department of Kerala. The greatest damage to crops (30%) occurred in the forest ranges in the North Circle pineapple (47%), sweet (47%), cassava (42%), Alocasia (39%), beans (25 %) and banana (23%) had the highest percentage of damage. In Marayur intensive study area, 28 species of crops were damaged and the damage was greater during the summer months. Maximum damage is caused by the elephant (72%), followed by Gaur (62%), Sambar (17%) and boars (16%). Tiger (Panthera tigris), Panther (Leopard) (Panthera pardus) and wild dog (Conine alpinus) were the main lifters won in the state. A total of 31 deaths and 64 injuries caused by wild animals have been recorded in the State during the period 1983 to 1993. Thirteen local methods used to control crop damage have been identified. Fencing high tension by Energizer has been effective to stop the elephants and other herbivores from entering agriculture. Damage to crops is intended to be a model of culture and location of the fields of agriculture. In the short term and long term steps to prevent damage to crops are discussed (Jayson EA, 1999).
7. Culture bird damage
The use of nonlethal methods to prevent crop damage by birds have been reported. Blueberry damage by cedar waxwings (Bombycilla cedrotun have been minimized. (Avery et al 2002).
8. Damage caused by wild birds
In the northern Great Plains of the United States, conflicts between red wing black bird (Agelaius phoeniceus) and sunflower (Helianthus annuus) growers have intensified since late 1960 due to expanded commercial production sunflowers. We have studied the possible effects of the repression of the population up to 2 million red-winged blackbirds year under a 5 year program in the spring with DRC-1339 bait (3-choloro-4 methalalanine) treated rice. They also considered whether lethal control, in combination with current levels of management of breeding habitat would be profitable to reduce predation of sunflower crops in late summer. We evaluated the cost-benefit ratio for the participation of 4 scenarios of sacrifice (1) variable annual Cullus, no more than 2 million birds, with and without density compensation (ie, the density of positive response rate) in the adult survival and (2) slaughter of 2 million birds a year, with and without density compensation. We have built a model of Red-winged Blackbird population represented as a function of age of the matrix and calibrated to stable growth. We assume a total population of 27 million birds on 1 April (week 1), representing the Red-winged Blackbird breeding staging of the population in South Dakota and east to migrate to North Dakota. At each stage of the massacre, was reduced stable red-winged Blackbird population (including for women and men) and draft the population up to 23 weeks of the annual cycle (September 2). Then assessed the cost of management in relation to potential losses of sunflower crops, assuming that $ 0. 07 in bird damage and 4% loss to other factors. Variable annual sacrifices, probably the most biologically realistic model scenarios, turned annual transfer of 1 240 560 (SE = 12 328) with compensation for birds and density of 1 231 620 (SE = 28 811) birds without density compensation, with cost-benefit ratios of 1:2. 3 and 1:3. 6, respectively. Annual rates of intrinsic population model in the 5 year period ranged from 1.4 to 4. 8%. Taking into account the possible variation of the effectiveness of the slaughter and the combination of direct and indirect costs, it is argued that the benefits to producers of sunflower control blackbiards deadly harassment Carouge through spring, combined with efforts to manage not existing lethal, probably would be negligible (Blackwell et al 2003).
The efficacy of hydrolyzed casein (HC) and retail products containing HC in reducing deer damage to trees and shrubs was determined during a field experiment conducted in the United States in 2004-05. The results of experiments demonstrating the ability of the HC as a deer repellent. Technical grade, HC completely eliminated the damage to navigation evergreen shrub (Gaultheria shallon) and conifers (Thuja plicata). SC Sources de détail ne sont pas aussi efficace Hydrolyse the protein pur (Kimball et al 2005).
9. Blackbird dommages-intérêts
L'impact économique des merles serious peuvent être pour les producteurs de riz dans les États-Unis. Une approche de la gestion de ce dommage est l'application de l'oiseau-chimiques de dissuasion à la culture. Essais pilotes précédente suggère that of caffeine potentiel offert comme un safe box, oiseau répulsif économique. Dans cette étude, les essais d'alimentation de la femme rouge cage à ailes et des merles vachers mâle à tête brune confirmé qu'un taux de traitement 25,000 ppm cafeine sur les semences de riz réduit la consommation jusqu'à 76%. Les essais avec des espèces dans troupeaux mixtes merles 0. 2-plume has abouti vol à seulement 4% de perte de Caffine traités par du riz par rapport à 43% de perte de riz non traitée. . Les essais de terrain d'un traitement of caffeine at 10 000 ppm in Louisiana to reveal > 90% des semences traités to caffeine resté riz est les jours ne consomme 2 et 3 de l'étude considérant merles them consommé & gt; 80% des semences non traité. En tant que traitement des semences de riz pour les merles dissuade, caffeine semble être efficace, économique et de l'environnement respectueux, rather than d'autres essais de toxicité aquatique est souhaitable. Des améliorations dans la formulation seront nécessaires pour rendre le composé pratiques pour les applications générales de pulvérisation agricole et d'étendre l'adhésion de la caféine pour les semences de riz dans des conditions opérationnelles ((Avery et al 2005).
10. Deer dommages
Un questionnaire a été distribué à plus de 2500 fermes de connaître les dommages causés par les cerfs de plaine aux cultures, aux arbres et la végétation. Les résultats du questionnaire ont montré que 69% (n = 1192) de répondre agriculteurs avaient chevreuil sur leurs avoirs et que Roe et la jachère sont les espèces les plus fréquemment observées. Sur ces exploitations avec des cerfs présents, les céréales sont les cultures les plus fréquemment endommagées (44%), mais seulement 15% de ces agriculteurs ont fait valoir que le coût annuel des dommages aux céréales dépassait £ 500 chaque année pour l'ensemble de l'exploitation. Validation des évaluations étaient fondées sur deux visites pour évaluer cerfs dommages à la culture, avec des espèces de cerf / évaluation de la densité de Mars lors de l'évaluation et une évaluation du rendement en grains et de la qualité lors de l'évaluation Août. Les répondants étaient généralement précises de la densité et des espèces de chevreuils. Le pourcentage de la ferme à subir un préjudice imputable à des cerfs était très variable, étant généralement plus élevé à la première évaluation que la seconde. Les chiffres calculés pour les pertes de rendement ont été généralement faibles, les agriculteurs sont pauvres à estimer l'impact économique de cerfs dommages par rapport aux données de validation, mais un certain nombre de paramètres ont changé de mai dans les deux ans entre la diffusion du questionnaire et de validation, y compris les changements chez les cerfs densité, rotation des cultures, et la baisse marquée des prix des céréales, qui mai rendre compte de certaines des inexactitudes. Il n'y avait pas de relation statistiquement significative entre l'évaluation des dégâts des cerfs et des pertes de rendement, soit pour des espèces individuelles ou les deux espèces confondues. La relation entre le dommage Chevreuil à l'évaluation des récoltes et des cerfs densité Roe a été significative (Post et al, 2001).
Gestionnaires de la faune doit tenir compte des préférences du public pour des niveaux de population de la faune lors de la détermination des politiques de gestion. 849 agriculteurs, les chasseurs et le grand public du Maryland. Etats-Unis, ont été interrogés en 1996 afin de déterminer leurs préférences pour augmenter, de maintenir ou diminuer le nombre de cerfs de la population. L'utilisation d'un cadre théorique d'utilité aléatoire, les facteurs qui expliquent les préférences telles que le lieu de résidence, les caractéristiques socio-économiques, les dommages paysage, la perte de rendement agricole et les accidents de véhicules ont été analysés. Les résultats indiquent que la majorité des personnes bénéficient de cerfs et que vous souhaitez empêcher les cerfs de la population aux niveaux actuels. D'autres caractéristiques comme l'âge, le revenu, l'éducation, et d'habitants ont peu ou pas d'impact sur les préférences. Dommages matériels, pertes de récoltes, des dommages paysage, et les accidents de voiture semblent être les plus grandes préoccupations (Curtis et al 2001).
11. La population de cerfs Sika au Japon
Cerfs Sika Nippon Cervus population dans l'est de Hokkaido, au Japon, a augmenté rapidement au cours de 1990-1998. Cette augmentation semble s'être interrompu en 1999-2000, probablement en raison d'augmentation de la chasse et de contrôle des nuisances. La période de croissance rapide a été associée à une augmentation rapide de manière disproportionnée de la rémunération versée pour les cerfs dommages aux cultures. Nous avons étudié les changements dans l'alimentation durant la période 1990-2000, comme en témoigne par des ratios d'isotopes stables du C et N du collagène de la dent. Nous avons émis l'hypothèse que les rapports isotopiques démontrerait changements diététiques liés à des niveaux de population et / ou de temps, et que des changements dans les rapports isotopiques serait compatible avec l'augmentation de la consommation individuelle d'herbes de pâturage à des niveaux de population plus élevée, les ratios isotopiques 13C delta du collagène des dents en 3 ans Sika vieux indiqué un régime dominé par les plantes C3 toute la période, et que les espèces autres que les graminées fourragères des pâturages et de bambou nain Sasa nipponica (la principale culture et plantes de sous-bois, respectivement) ont été des éléments importants. Il ya eu une baisse importante dans le delta 13C rapport isotopique en 1990-2000 chez les mâles et les femelles, delta 15N valeurs n'ont montré aucune tendance avec le temps pour les hommes, mais a augmenté au fil du temps chez les femelles. Indices de la population (Sightings par unité d'effort, SPUE) étaient corrélés négativement avec Delta Homme 13C, et positivement corrélée avec Delta Homme 15N, des valeurs indiquant un changement dans le régime alimentaire sur la période, en particulier chez les femmes. Ce changement mai rapportés à la population et / ou des niveaux de prélèvements, en particulier l'augmentation rapide des prélèvements féminins pour un contrôle des nuisances et de la chasse au cours de la période. Les données sont cohérentes avec une augmentation relative de la consommation d'herbe de pâturage par individu à des niveaux de population plus élevée, toutefois, d'autres explications des données sont également plausibles. Possibles des changements alimentaires, et d'autres facteurs influençant l'évolution observée dans les rapports isotopiques sont discutées. Bien que statistiquement significative, l'ampleur des changements alimentaires paraît néanmoins faible, et ne constitue pas une preuve qui justifie de modifier la politique actuelle, de limiter les dégâts causés aux cultures par la réduction géré la population à environ 25% des niveaux de crête (Halley et al 2006).
12. White-tailed Deer dommages-intérêts
White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) may cause more damage than any other species of wildlife. These damages include crop loss, automobile and aviation collisions, disease transmission, environmental degradation, and destruction of ornamental plantings. One practical method of controlling deer damage is the use of exclusionary fences. The relatively high cost of labor and materials required to build effective fences has limited most applications to the protection of orchards, vegetable farms, other high –value resources, and mitigation of human health and safety risks. Improvements in fence technology resulting in less expensive, yet effective fence have expanded the use of fence to manage damage caused by deer. Fence typically installed to manage white-tailed deer damage include wire or plastic mesh, electrified high-tensile steel wire, and electrified polytape or polyrope fence. They reviewed the scientific literature on fencing to determine which fence designs would be the most effective for excluding deer in a variety of situations (VerCauteren et al 2006).
The installation of fences to protect agricultural products, natural resources, or other areas from deer (Odocoileus spp. ) can be expensive and potential benefits of fencing are difficult to quantify. A rational method is needed to help evaluate whether fencing can be cost effective and which fence designs will be optimal for particular applications. They describe an interactive, dynamic simulation model that conducts economic analyses and predicts economic benefit associated with fences for crops relative to area and perimeter of protected plot, value of crop, percentage of crop damaged by deer annually prior to fencing, efficacy of fence, and costs of fence materials and labor. Users of the model can easily adjust these variables to fit their individual situations and needs. By running a series of simulations, model users can answer questions related directly to fence efficacy and cost-effectiveness (VerCauteren K et al 2006).
13. Corn damage by wild life
Corn damages in USA were estimated at 6. 6 per hac due to wild life. The white tailed deer was the wild animal responsible for loss. The average hacters owned by farmers were 125 out of which 55 hectares were sown corn. (Tzilkowsi et al 2002).
14. Deer Damage
Deer (Odocoileus spp. ) can cause substantial damage to agricultural crops, resulting in economic losses for producers. They developed a deer activated bio-acoustic frightening device to reduce white-tailed deer (O, virginianus) damage in agricultural fields. The device considered of an infrared detection system that activated an audio component which broadcast recorded distress and alarm calls of deer. They tested the device against unprotected controls in cornfields during the silking-tasseling stage of growth in July 2001. The device was not effective in reducing damage: track-count indices (F1,4=0. 02), corn yield (F1,9=1. 27,P=0. 289), and estimated damage levels (F1,10=0. 87, P=0. 374) did not differ between experimental and control fields. The size (F2,26=1,00,P=0. 380), location (F2,25=0. 39,P=0. 684), and percent overlap (F2,25=0. 20,P=0. 818) of use-areas of radiomarked female deer did not differ between during and after treatment periods. They concluded that the deer-activated bio-acoustic device was not effective in protecting cornfields in this study; however, the device may be more effective in small areas such as gardens or for high value crops that do not grow tall enough to offer protective cover (Gilsdorf et al 2004).
White –tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) cause millions of dollars of damage to agricultural crops annually . They tested the effectiveness of propane exploders and Electronic Guards (Pocatello Supply Depot, Pocatello, Id). For reducing deer damage in corn fields during the silking-tasseling stage of growth. Track-count indices (F2,7=0. 70,P=0. 532), corn yield (F2,6=0. 14, P=0. 873), and estimated damage levels (F2, 12=1,45 P=0. 272) did not differ between experimental and control fields. The size (F2,11=0. 08,P =0. 924), Location (F2,9=0. 30, P=0. 750), and percent overlap (F2,9=0. 46, P=0. 644) of use –areas of radiomarked female deer in the vicinity of experimental fields did not differ among before, during and after 18 day treatment periods. In a related study, we placed propane exploders in cornfields within use-areas of 12 radiomarked female deer. The deer did not react appreciably to the devices; the size (F2, 17=0. 08, P=0. 921), location (F2,22=1. 37, P=0. 275), and percent overlap (f2,10=0. 47, P=0. 636) of deer use areas did not differ among before, during, and after 14 day treatment periods. They conclude that propane exploders and Electronic Guards have limited potential for reducing deer damage to corn at the silking-tasseling stage (Glisdorf et al 2004l.
A welfare measure for wildlife damage to Ontario (Canada) field crop producers during the 1998 was. The welfare measure presented in this study provides a more accurate picture of losses from wildlife damage to agricultural. Other damage estimates based on yield loss overstate the damage since benefits from wildlife are netted out. Results for the Ontario field crop producers indicate that the magnitude of the difference between the value of the yield loss and the welfare measure of damage is approximately 50%. This difference indicates that most farmers were willing to tolerate the wildlife damage they experienced (Heigh et al 2001).
15. Grapevine damages
In field trials in 1999-2000 in Gundla Pochampally, Andhra Pradesh, India , the incidence of damage to green grapevines was studied. Visits to the vines by bats begain around 45 minutes after sunset and foraging continued until 1 hour before sunrise. Damage occurred to ripe fruit only, and increased around harvesting time, percentage damage ranged from 0 to 100% (Bhargavi et al, 2001).
16. Hippo damage
The introduction to the paper described the various ecological effects known to result from grazing, movement along paths, and wallowing by the common hippo. Hippopotamus amphibious. The study reported was carried out at Kainji Lake National Park. , Nigeria, during the dry season periods {of 1991 and 1992} . The method adopted by Agnew, A. D. Q. (East African Wildlife Journal (1966) 4, 38-46) was used to assess hippo foraging footprints at three hippo pool sites. A total of 32 footpaths were enumerated out of which 18 were located at Kaii hippo pool site, while the frequency of utilization of paths was also higher for this site relative to those in other area. The upstream-downstream trend in hippo occupancy of dry season water pools could expose the hippo to crop damage conflicts at the peripheral areas.
17. Hygo-Japan-mammal crop damages
Mammals inhabiting Hyogo consist of seven orders, 17 families and about 40 species. Except for Lagomorpha and Artiodactyla, the remaining five orders among them include species which need some protection and they total about 55% of all species excluding extinct, introduced and feral species. Ecological information in Hyogo prefecture has been accumulated in few protection-required species there is no recent information of spatial distribution on Oriental water-shrew, Japanese noctule-bat and Japanese dormouse; and little information on Japanese shrew, Japanese horse-shoe bat, Japanese large –footed bat. Schreiber’s bent-winged bat, Japanese tube-nosed bat, common parti-colored bat, Japanese squirrel, Japanese small flying-squirrel, Japanese giant flying-squirrel, smith’s vole harvest mouse and Japanese badger. Damage and population managements is also necessary in sika deer and Japanese wild boar, to reduce their crop–damaging, and comprehensive management in Japanese black bear, an endangered local population, to prevent human-bear fatal accident. Habitat alteration due to human activities, however, has affected the population sizes and spatial distribution of all these, mammals in Hyogo. Habitat management has priority over damage. Fundamental and applied scientific studies and understanding of ecology and wildlife management science needs promotion by citizens (Mitani M 2000).
18. Monkey damage
Forty-seven property owners in Entebbe, Uganda were questioned about vervet monkey activities on their property. The objective was to investigate the interactions between humans and vervet monkeys in an agricultural area adjacent to a forest zone. Other studies have reported that farms located within 300 m of a forested boundary probably incur the greatest risk of crop-raiding. Two other factors that may influence susceptibility to vervet crop-raiding were also examined: the types of crops grown and the types of direct preventive measures used. The effect of these two factors on vervet crop-raiding is not straight forward. However, the distance a property is located from the forest edge is an important factor influencing vervet crop raiding. Surveyed gardens 200 m from the forest edge received significantly less crop –raiding than farms located 100 or 50m (P=0. 040,Saj et al 2001).
19. Bait damage
The longevity of zinc phosphide (ZP) on whole wheat bait was determined at the end of the “dry” and “wet” seasons, is Western Australia. . While the total rainfall during the two trials was 74 mm and 155mm, substantial loss of ZP was recorded only after significant rainfall events. Irrespective of season, the loss of ZP from bait applied in bait stations was minimal. The maximum recorded loss was 17% and this occurred after 21 days’ exposure during the wet season where the bait stations were placed in-crop. Nevertheless, regardless of the application method, sufficient ZP always remained on the wheat bait. Theoretically it was lethal to rats for at least 8-14 days (Twigg et al. , 2001).
20. Venezuela experience:
In Venezuela, lethal control of wintering Dickcissels (Spiza Americana) is considered a threat to the species survival. To help farmers protect their rice and sorghum crops from by Dickcissels and to minimize the killing of large numbers of these birds, alternative non-lethal crop protection measures are needed. To that end, the responses of captive Dickcissels to three bird-repellent chemicals (anthraquinone,methyl anthranilate and methiocarb) applied to rice seed were evaluated. In one-cup feeding trials, treatments of methiocarb (0. 05% g/g, applied as Mesurol 75% wettable powder) and anthraquinone (0. 5%, applied as Flight Control) reduced consumption of rice by 70% relative to pretreatment consumption. Other anthraquinone treatments (0. 05,0. 1%) and methyl authranilate (0. 05%) were inrffective. In two –cup trials, with untreated millet as the alternative food, consumption of rice treated with 0. 05 and 0. 1% anthraquinone was reduced by 90% relative to pretreatment levels. Overall, Dickcissels responded to the repellents similarly to the red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus). Because Flight Control has been used successfully to reduce blackbird use of rice fields in the USA, the prospect is good for successful reduction of damage to repening rice by Dickcissels in Venezuela, particularly if repellent use is coupled with the establishment of alternative feeding sites ( Avery et al 2001). Deer selected carrots over all green manure crops.
21. Nilgai damages in India
Crop-damage by nilgai has been widely reported from India. Are give Nilgai is for increasing in this region. Lack of natural predators, deforestation overgrazing and the protection of these animals from Hindu communities are reasons for their overpopulation. Tree cover of Acacia are generally used by nilgai as a day time shelter but not food, therefore it goes for crop-raiding in the late evening and at night, jumping across 6-7 feet high stone wall, barbed fencing and fences of dead or live thorny plant material and any other fencing/barrier made to protect the crop-. Due to habit of both grazing as well as browsing they devore every kind of farm species (both rabi and kharif crops). It has been observed that eating less but destroying more by trampling and causing damage are therefore regarded as serious mammalian crop pest and farmers wants to get ride of this unconventional pest. The farmers chase them away by just following them by making loud sound by crackers or air gun fires, following through tractors, empty tin or dried pumpkin filled with small stones and connected with strings. Technically, carrots(enclosures), trenching or power fencing are suggested to mitigate the crop damage. Secondly, animals could be translocated to wildlife sanctuaries from the sites they seen overcrowded or severe crop raiding problems (Goyal et al 2000).
22. Pesticides and wildlife
A range of monitoring activities has shown impacts of anticholinesterase pesticides on UK wildlife, and continued risks are evident from laboratory and field experiments, together with the scale of use in the field. Along with other broad spectrum insecticides, many organophosphates have adverse direct effects on non-target arthropods in farmland, and so are likely to contribute towards indirect effects of pesticides on farmland biodiversity. The anticholinesterase insecticides have both lethal and sublethal effects on aquatic wildlife, however the history of recent incidents of damage to river ecology following the wider use of synthetic pyrethroid sheep dips, illustrates the need to consider the implications of changes in the use of alternative products when reviewing these insecticides ( Burn 2000).
The use of anthraguinone-based flight control and methyl anthranilate-based non toxic avian foraging repellent we used to avoid crop damage by sandhill cranes. Thought both repellents were effective at deterring cranes from treated corn, neither has been tested on corn under field conditions. (Blackwell et al 2001).
Oak seedlings were scientifically raised. Seedling mortality and wild life browse damages were minimal when certain herbicide mixture was used. Biologically and aesthetically, the procedure was extremely successful (Ezell et al 1999).
Pre-commercially thinned (forests are less prone to moose damage (McLaren et al, 2000).
23. Pesticide use in conflicts
Pesticides can cause damage to man and beneficial organism. Some sub-lethal effects of pesticides were studied in birds with a view to identifying characteristic biochemical responses that may be useful for the monitoring of exposure to sub-lethal levels in the field. Pesticides were used; demeton-S-methyl, (DSM),chlorpyriphos, chlorfenviphos, triazophos, pirimicarb, methiocarb and permethrin. Blood was collected before dosing, and 2,6,24,48 and 72 hours after the treatment from the brachial vein of birds. Enzyme, activities were assayed in the plasma or serum samples obtained. The assays used were GOT,MHD, GDH, SDH,GAMMA GT and ChE. The results showed an increase in plasma and serum GOT and gamma-GT levels were found in all animals treated with the previous pesticides. The level of ChE increased in birds after treatment with permethrin. It was concluded that the pesticides cause structural and functional changes in the liver and also, the measurement of the previous parameter activities may be useful for assessing exposure and sub-lethal effects of pesticides on the wildlife (Dahamna et al 2004).
24. IPM and crop losses
The queensland sugar, industry has recently implemented a comprehensive integrated pest management (IPM) system to minimize crop losses from two antive rodent species, Rattus sordidus (canefield rat) and Melomy burtoni (climbing rat). These species inflicted approximately $25M of damage in a major outbreak in the 1999-2000 seasons. Both of these rodents are listed as common wildlife under the schedules of the queensland nature Conservation (Wildlife) Regulation 1994. The IPM programme is based on understanding the ecology and biology of each species. It incorporates a large-scale monitoring programme aimed at providing early warning of imminent rodent build up to avert major outbreaks. The industry has also developed a memorandum of understanding with Queensland State Government, which delivers on the industry’s pest management needs, while providing an improved system of accountability for the taking of two of Queenslands native wildlife species. The consensus reached between the cooperating parties (The Bureau of sugar Experiment Stations, CANEGROWERS, regionally-based Cane Productivity Services, and the outcomes can be negotiated between rural industry and environmental interests (Hunt et al 2004) .
In Areas around Lake Mburo National Park ,large wild animals wander in close proximity to human settlement . This poses serious conflict in terms of crop damage. The integration of conservation with other land uses is difficult where densely settled agricultural land surrounds a protected area potentially containing problem animals, as is the case for several parks in Africa and Asia. The intensity of crop raiding was quantified through the use of random crop quadrants/plots and area estimation techniques in a portion of raided fields. The animal species concerned were documented from observations, footprints and any other marks left behind. Three variables were tested as predictors of damage; human population density, distance from the park boundary and season. In this study data is presented regarding crop loss in the different seasons of the year, analysis of crop damage variation and animal species involved in crop loss. A diverse assemblage of animals foraged on subsistence crops and analysis of crop damage revealed significant crop depreciation by wildlife( Kagoro et al 2004).
25. Hawai Pest
The apple snail, P. canaliculata, is an aquatic freshwater snail native to South America, Originally imported to Hawai’i as pets for the aquarium trade, they were soon introduced into wetland plots known as “lo’s” where taro (Colocasia esculenta), an economically and culturally significant crop, is grown. Some individuals reasoned that the snails, being edible, could be harvested as food, and that raising the snails along with the taro in the “Io’s” would provide income supplemental to the taro harvest with minimum additional input. This introduction of snails into the taro “lo’i” however, proved to be a disaster. Farmers failed to take into account the voracity , reproductive potential, and rapid growth of the snails. Because of the ideal conditions in the taro “lo’i”, the snails multiplied rapidly and fed heavily on the taro shoots and corns in many cases, destroying a complete crop before harvest time. Hindisight has shown that the snails are dissipated via the irrigation system throughout the “lo’i” and then spread to the surrounding wetland areas. Large breeding populations are now established in wetland areas on the islands of Hawai’e, O’ahu, Kaua’I, and Maui. Some of these wetlands are wildlife preserves with state and federal mandates that restrict the potential methods of eradication. Background information is provided on both P. canaliculata and taro to fully explain the challenges and opportunities that this situation presents (Tamaru et al 2006).
26. Chemical repellents
Chemical feeding repellents applied to ripening sunflower might help reduce blackbird (lcteridae) damage, which is a chronic agricultural problems from seed information harvest. However, cost are high to develop and register new repellents for agricultural use. In 2003 and 2004, we evaluated feeding repellency of 8 pesticides registered by the Environmental Protection Agency for use in sunflower. Caged red-winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus) were fed unshelled sunflower seeds treated with the following pesticides: 5 pyrethroid insecticides, an organochlorine, an organophosphorus, and a gungicide. Compared to untreated refernce groups, feeding rates were reduced for 4 of the 5 pyrethroid insecticides. Only the organophosphorus (chlorpyrifos), however, significantly decreased feeding rates. More research on repellency effects of this product in field efficacy trials is probably warranted based on the results of our cage experiments. Depending on timing of application, registered insecticides with blackbird feeding repellency could provide supplemental economic benefits to sunflower producers through dual purpose use ((Linz et al 2006).
27. Persistent organic pollutants (POPS)
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have spread throughout the global environment to threaten human health and damage ecosystems, with evidence of POPs contamination in wildlife, human blood, and breast milk documented worldwide. Based on data from the US Food and Drug Administration, this article provides a brief overview of POPs residues in common foods in the USA food supply. The analysis focuses on 12 chemical compounds now targeted for an international phase out under the Stockholm convention on POPs. The available information indicates that POPs residues are present in virtually all categories of foods, including baked goods, fruit, vegetables, meat, poultry, and dairy products. Residues of five or more persistent toxic chemicals in a single food item are not unusual, with the most commonly found POPs being the pesticides DDT ( and its metabolites, such as DDE) and dieldrin. Estimated daily doses of dieldrin alone exceed the US Environmental Protection Agency and US Agency for Toxic Substances Disease Control reference dose for children. Given the widespread occurrence of POPs in the food supply and the serious health risks associated with even extremely small levels of exposure, prevention of further food contamination must be a national health policy priority in every country. Implementation of the Stockholm Convention will prevent further accumulation of persistent toxic chemicals in food. Early ratification and rapid implementation of this treaty should be an urgent priority for all governments (Schafer et al 2002).
28. Netherland experiences
Traditionally, pink-footed geese Anser Brachyrhynchus wintering in Denmark, the Netherlands and Belgium have used the Danish sites only during mild winter, rapidly moving southwards in case of cold spells. Since the 1980s, an increasing number of geese have remained on the Danish wintering grounds despite cold spells, foraging on pastures Because winter wheat represented a reliable and profitable food source even in sever winter, the recent change in Agricultural practice has enhanced the development of a new wintering strategy of pink-footed geese, allowing a northward expansion of their winter range. Potentially, this will increase the crop damage conflict and may lead to further population growth ( Therkidsen et al 2000).
Enclosure trials near Huron, CA in the San Joaquin Valley from 12 to 23 January 1999 , determine the efficacy of Flight Control TM (50% anthraquinone) and Mesurol R (75% methiocarb) in preventing horned lark damage to lettuce seedlings. Flight control TM (FC) and Mesurol R were evaluated as foliar sprays at application rates of 2. 79 and 2. 27 kg ha-1, respectively. Horned lark damage to lettuce seedlings treated with anthraquinone was greater (p=0. 015) than for methiocarb R, 60 versus 20% , respectively, and seedlings in control plots were 100% destroyed. While this level of damage is probably unacceptable to lettuce growers, it should be remembered that the enclosure situation caused an artificially high bird pressure on the crop. Further studies in open fields under a more normal bird pressure are warranted ( York et al 2000).
29. Ozone injury
Incidence and severity of visible foliar ozone injury on cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata L. ) and crown-bread (Verbesina Occidentalis Walt). Were determined . It is thus a matter of consideration that zone injury may harm vegetation harmed by browsing or even cutting. Ozone injury was greatest on the lower leaves for both species sampled with over 95% of the injured leaves occurring on the lower 50% of the plant. This is the first report of foliar ozone injury on these plant species in situ, in the Park, illustrating the great variability in symptom expression with time, and within and between populations ( Chappelka et al 2003).
30. Protected arrears and humans
Knowledge of conflicts between people and protected areas is required for the design of sustainable conservation strategies for the management of most protected areas. The study identifies the causes of conflicts between local people and the Benous Wildlife Conservation Area (BWCA), which includes the Benous National Park, In northern Cameroon. Informal interviews and questionnaires were administered to 114 households in three communities, and to 17 park staff and 7 professional hunting guides from July –October 1997. Crop damage affected 86% of the surveyed household, with 31% of crop income lost on average, and with the damage varying significantly between communities. Elephants, baboons, patas monkeys. Warthogs and green parrots accounted for 97% of crop damage, with the staple food maize and millet being most affected. Of the respondents 27% experienced livestock depredation, with 18% of livestock income lost on average. The civet cat was the main predator. The involvement of local people in illegal activities, their lack of access to natural resources, and damage by wildlife were identified as principal causes of conflicts. Local people, park staff and professional hunting guides had diverse and differing perceptions about the causes of the conflicts and made various suggestions for reduction of wildlife damage including animal scaring and controlled shooting. We conclude that, under current wildlife policy, conflict between people and BWCA (Bonous Wildlife Conservation area) is difficult to resolve. To reduce conflicts and promote sustainable conservation, we suggest co-management of wildlife involving all stakeholders, establishment of crop damage control teams, and promotion of tangible benefits to local people. There may be a requirement for site –specificity in management strategies (Weladji et al 2003).
31. Low technology use to avoid damages
It is suggested that an integrated, community-based, low technological approach will be the most sustainable solution to this conflict ( Osborn et al 2003).
Blackbirds (lcteridae) annually damage US$5-8 million of ripening sunflower in the northern Great Plains. Baiting blackbirds with avicide-treated rice during spring migration might reduce the regional breeding populations. birds can be successfully baited with avicide-treated rice placed in corn stubble (Linz et al 2003).
Plant debris accumulation is viewed as a key factor determining small mammal abundance and potential damage in low-till agricultural ((Stermer et al 2003) areas.
The projected total value of crop yield losses due to wildlife damage for buffer zone villages located in Garhwal Himalaya in about Rs. 5 38 620 (US$15 389). Besides food grain, horticultural crops i. e apple, also suffered. Major wildlife
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